Morphology & Specimens
Fossil specimens, cranial metrics, dental traits, and comparative postcranial anatomy across hominin lineages.
Estimates & Preservation
Many values are estimates from incomplete remains. Measurements depend on reconstruction choices; dental and microwear interpretations can vary between studies.
Fossil Specimens Browser
| Specimen | Common Name | Species | Site | Year | Age (MYA) | Sex | Completeness % | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TM 266-01-060-1 | Toumai | Sahelanthropus tchadensis | – | 2001 | 7.200 | Indeterminate | 40.0 | Oldest widely accepted hominin cranium |
| ARA-VP-6/500 | Ardi | Ardipithecus ramidus | Middle Awash | 1994 | 4.400 | Female | 45.0 | Earliest relatively complete hominin skeleton |
| KNM-KP 29281 | Kanapoi tibia | Australopithecus anamensis | – | 1994 | 4.120 | Indeterminate | 15.0 | Earliest evidence of obligate bipedalism in A. anamensis |
| StW 573 | Little Foot | Australopithecus prometheus | Sterkfontein Member 2 | 1994 | 3.670 | Female | 90.0 | Most complete Australopithecus skeleton ever found; ~90% complete |
| DIK-1-1 | Selam / Dikika child | Australopithecus afarensis | Hadar | 2000 | 3.330 | Indeterminate | 60.0 | Exceptional juvenile Australopithecus |
| AL 288-1 | Lucy | Australopithecus afarensis | Hadar | 1974 | 3.200 | Female | 40.0 | Iconic A. afarensis demonstrating bipedalism with small brain |
| Taung 1 | Taung Child | Australopithecus africanus | Sterkfontein | 1924 | 2.800 | Indeterminate | 55.0 | First African hominin fossil |
| STS 5 | Mrs. Ples | Australopithecus africanus | Sterkfontein | 1947 | 2.500 | Female | 85.0 | Most complete A. africanus cranium |
| BOU-VP-12/130 | A. garhi holotype | Australopithecus garhi | Bouri Formation | 1996 | 2.500 | Indeterminate | 35.0 | Associated with cutmarked fauna |
| KNM-WT 17000 | Black Skull | Paranthropus aethiopicus | West Turkana | 1985 | 2.500 | Indeterminate | 50.0 | Earliest robust Paranthropus |
| Stw 573 | Little Foot | Australopithecus africanus | Sterkfontein | 1994 | 2.200 | Indeterminate | 90.0 | Among most complete early hominin skeletons |
| MH1 | Karabo | Australopithecus sediba | Sterkfontein | 2008 | 1.980 | Male | 65.0 | Holotype of A. sediba |
| MH2 | Issa | Australopithecus sediba | Sterkfontein | 2008 | 1.980 | Female | 55.0 | Paratype of A. sediba |
| KNM-ER 1470 | 1470 skull | Homo rudolfensis | Koobi Fora | 1972 | 1.900 | Male | 55.0 | Large-brained early Homo; rudolfensis debate |
| TM 1517 | Kromdraai type | Paranthropus robustus | Kromdraai | 1938 | 1.800 | Indeterminate | 50.0 | Type specimen of Paranthropus robustus |
| SK 48 | – | Paranthropus robustus | Swartkrans | 1948 | 1.800 | Male | 65.0 | Key Swartkrans P. robustus cranium |
| OH 24 | Twiggy | Homo habilis | Olduvai Gorge | 1968 | 1.800 | Indeterminate | 40.0 | Gracile early Homo from Olduvai |
| OH 5 | Zinj / Nutcracker Man | Paranthropus boisei | Olduvai Gorge | 1959 | 1.790 | Male | 75.0 | Type of Paranthropus boisei |
| KNM-ER 3733 | – | Homo erectus | Koobi Fora | 1975 | 1.780 | Male | 70.0 | Classic African H. erectus cranium |
| D2700 | Dmanisi Skull 3 | Homo georgicus | Dmanisi | 2001 | 1.770 | Male | 75.0 | Small-brained early Homo from Dmanisi |
| D3444 | Dmanisi edentulous | Homo georgicus | Dmanisi | 2002 | 1.770 | Male | 70.0 | Evidence of survival with severe dental loss |
| OH 7 | H. habilis type | Homo habilis | Olduvai Gorge | 1960 | 1.750 | Indeterminate | 35.0 | Type specimen of Homo habilis |
| KNM-ER 406 | – | Paranthropus boisei | Koobi Fora | 1969 | 1.700 | Male | 70.0 | Classic hyper-robust Paranthropus morphology |
| KNM-WT 15000 | Turkana Boy / Nariokotome Boy | Homo ergaster | West Turkana | 1984 | 1.560 | Male | 80.0 | Most complete H. ergaster skeleton |
| Trinil 2 | Java Man calotte | Homo erectus | – | 1891 | 1.000 | Indeterminate | 25.0 | First H. erectus discovered |
| Sangiran 17 | – | Homo erectus | – | 1969 | 1.000 | Male | 65.0 | Major Javan H. erectus cranium |
| ATD6-15 | Gran Dolina juvenile | Homo antecessor | Atapuerca | 1994 | 0.850 | Indeterminate | 30.0 | Early Homo from Atapuerca |
| Zhoukoudian III | Peking Man representative | Homo erectus | Zhoukoudian | 1929 | 0.780 | Male | 50.0 | Largest Asian H. erectus sample |
| Cranium 5 | Miguelon / Sima de los Huesos | Homo heidelbergensis | Atapuerca | 1992 | 0.430 | Male | 80.0 | Largest Sima cranium |
| Ceprano 1 | Ceprano calvaria | Homo cepranensis | Ceprano | 1994 | 0.400 | Indeterminate | 35.0 | Holotype; thick-boned calvaria with mosaic of erectus/heidelbergensis features |
| DH1 | Neo / H. naledi holotype | Homo naledi | Rising Star Cave | 2013 | 0.335 | Male | 50.0 | Holotype of H. naledi |
| DH3 | H. naledi hand | Homo naledi | Rising Star Cave | 2013 | 0.335 | Indeterminate | 25.0 | Derived hand morphology in small-brained hominin |
| Jebel Irhoud 1 | – | Homo sapiens | Jebel Irhoud | 1961 | 0.315 | Indeterminate | 60.0 | Early H. sapiens cranial morphology |
| Kabwe 1 | Broken Hill / Rhodesian Man | Homo heidelbergensis | – | 1921 | 0.300 | Male | 70.0 | Classic archaic Homo cranium |
| Penghu 1 | Penghu mandible | Homo tsaichangensis | Penghu Channel | 2008 | 0.300 | Indeterminate | 75.0 | Holotype; robust mandible unlike known Asian H. erectus |
| Florisbad cranium | Florisbad Man | Homo helmei | Florisbad | 1932 | 0.259 | Indeterminate | 30.0 | Holotype; transitional archaic-modern morphology |
| Omo 1 | Omo Kibish I | Homo sapiens | Omo Kibish | 1967 | 0.195 | Indeterminate | 45.0 | Among earliest anatomically modern H. sapiens |
| BOU-VP-16/1 | Herto adult | Homo sapiens | Herto | 1997 | 0.160 | Indeterminate | 55.0 | Early modern humans with mortuary behavior |
| BOU-VP-16/1 | Herto adult 1 | Homo sapiens idaltu | – | 1997 | 0.160 | Male | 85.0 | Holotype; one of earliest near-anatomically-modern H. sapiens crania |
| BOU-VP-16/2 | Herto adult 2 | Homo sapiens idaltu | – | 1997 | 0.160 | Indeterminate | 30.0 | Second adult cranium confirming morphological pattern |
| BOU-VP-16/5 | Herto child | Homo sapiens idaltu | – | 1997 | 0.160 | Indeterminate | 40.0 | Immature cranium with cutmarks suggesting mortuary defleshing |
| Harbin cranium | Dragon Man | Homo longi | – | 1933 | 0.146 | Male | 85.0 | Large archaic Homo cranium; H. longi designation |
| NR-1 | Nesher Ramla parietal | Homo sp. Nesher Ramla | Nesher Ramla | 2010 | 0.130 | Indeterminate | 15.0 | Partial parietal with archaic morphology distinct from H. sapiens and Neanderthals |
| NR-2 | Nesher Ramla mandible | Homo sp. Nesher Ramla | Nesher Ramla | 2010 | 0.130 | Indeterminate | 80.0 | Robust mandible lacking chin; archaic morphology with Neanderthal affinities |
| Skhul V | – | Homo sapiens | – | 1932 | 0.100 | Male | 65.0 | Levantine early modern humans |
| Shanidar 4 | Flower burial | Homo neanderthalensis | Shanidar Cave | 1960 | 0.070 | Male | 55.0 | Famous flower burial evidence (debated) |
| La Ferrassie 1 | – | Homo neanderthalensis | – | 1909 | 0.070 | Male | 90.0 | Classic western European Neanderthal burial |
| CCH6a | Callao metatarsal | Homo luzonensis | Callao Cave | 2007 | 0.067 | Indeterminate | 15.0 | Earliest hominin from Philippines |
| Shanidar 1 | Old Man of Shanidar | Homo neanderthalensis | Shanidar Cave | 1957 | 0.065 | Male | 70.0 | Neanderthal pathology and care evidence |
| Kebara 2 | Kebara hyoid | Homo neanderthalensis | – | 1983 | 0.060 | Male | 60.0 | Hyoid bone informs speech anatomy debates |
| LB1 | Hobbit / Flo | Homo floresiensis | Liang Bua | 2003 | 0.060 | Female | 60.0 | Holotype of H. floresiensis |
| La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 | Old Man of La Chapelle | Homo neanderthalensis | – | 1908 | 0.050 | Male | 85.0 | Archetypal Neanderthal; severe pathology |
| Denisova 3 | Denisovan pinky phalanx | Homo denisova | Denisova Cave | 2008 | 0.050 | Female | 5.0 | First genetic evidence of Denisovans |
| Denisova 4 | Denisovan molar | Homo denisova | Denisova Cave | 2010 | 0.050 | Indeterminate | 10.0 | Morphologically distinct Denisovan teeth |
Cranial Capacity Comparison
Endocranial volume (cc) by specimen, colored by genus (first word of the binomial).
Dental Morphology
| Species | Tooth | Enamel Thickness (mm) | Cusp Pattern | Microwear | MQ | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Paranthropus boisei | M1 | 3.50 | Y-5 (hypocone) | Pitting — Pitting with fine striations; consistent with C4 grass/sedge dominance (isotopes), not simple hard-object feeding. | 2.05 | OH 5 (Zinj): extreme postcanine megadontia; classic Paranthropus occlusal morphology. |
| Paranthropus boisei | M2 | 3.20 | Y-5 | Pitting — Population summary: among highest megadontia quotients in hominins. | 2.00 | P. boisei species-level molar enamel thickness very high (relative metrics). |
| Paranthropus aethiopicus | M1 | 2.90 | Y-5 | Pitting — Early robust lineage extreme postcanine size. | 1.75 | P. aethiopicus KNM-WT 17000 (“Black Skull”). |
| Paranthropus robustus | M1 | 2.80 | Y-5 | Pitting — Pitting-dominated microwear; tough/gritty foods. | 1.65 | SK 48: Swartkrans robust molars with thick enamel. |
| Paranthropus robustus | M2 | 2.65 | Y-5 | Pitting — Similar pitting signal to other South African robust forms. | 1.60 | P. robustus: thick enamel vs gracile australopiths. |
| Australopithecus africanus | M1 | 1.70 | Y-5 | Mixed — Mixed fine scratches and pits; broader diet than C4 specialists. | 1.15 | STS 5 (“Mrs. Ples”), Sterkfontein Member 4. |
| Australopithecus africanus | M1 | 1.65 | Y-5 | Mixed — Sterkfontein Au. africanus: moderate relative enamel thickness. | 1.10 | Species summary (Member 2–4 samples). |
| Homo neanderthalensis | M1 | 1.70 | Y-5 (taurodont) | Scratching — Taurodont roots; wear consistent with varied mechanical loads. | 1.10 | Shanidar 1: classic Neanderthal molar taurodontism. |
| Homo heidelbergensis | M1 | 1.65 | Y-5 | Mixed — Kabwe: extensive pathology complicates dietary inference. | 1.10 | Kabwe 1 cranium (Broken Hill). |
| Australopithecus afarensis | M1 | 1.50 | Y-5 | Mixed — Fine scratches with pits; generalized early hominin signal. | 1.05 | AL 288-1 (“Lucy”), Hadar. |
| Homo erectus | M1 | 1.65 | Y-5 | Mixed — Zhoukoudian: less extreme pitting than robust australopiths. | 1.05 | Zhoukoudian H. erectus molars. |
| Homo neanderthalensis | M3 | 1.65 | Y-5 (taurodont) | Mixed — Heavy occlusal wear common in Neanderthals. | 1.05 | Neanderthal population dental summary. |
| Australopithecus sediba | M1 | 1.55 | Y-5 | Mixed — Malapa: dental calculus plant fragments; mixed signal. | 1.05 | Au. sediba: mosaic dentition (Berger et al. 2010). |
| Australopithecus garhi | M1 | 1.60 | Y-5 | Mixed — Bouri Formation: cut-marked fauna; hominin teeth rarer. | 1.05 | Au. garhi holotype BOU-VP-12/130. |
| Homo ergaster | M1 | 1.50 | Y-5 | Mixed — Juvenile KNM-WT 15000 (“Turkana Boy”) postcanine metrics. | 1.05 | H. ergaster: early Homo enamel thickness range. |
| Homo georgicus | M1 | 1.55 | Y-5 | Mixed — Dmanisi dental variability (Lordkipanidze et al. 2013). | 1.05 | D2700 cranium context. |
| Homo antecessor | M1 | 1.60 | Y-5 | Mixed — Middle Pleistocene Atapuerca dental evidence. | 1.05 | Sima de los Huesos sample (Atapuerca). |
| Australopithecus anamensis | M1 | 1.58 | Y-5 | Mixed — Au. anamensis: thick enamel vs chimps (Leakey et al. 1995). | 1.02 | Woranso-Mille MRD cranium context (Haile-Selassie et al. 2019). |
| Australopithecus afarensis | M2 | 1.45 | Y-5 | Mixed — Hadar/Laetoli samples: moderate enamel thickness. | 1.00 | Au. afarensis species-level dental summary. |
| Homo erectus | M2 | 1.55 | Y-5 | Mixed — Asian H. erectus enamel thickness commonly ~1.5–1.8 mm scale (site-dependent). | 1.00 | Species-level summary. |
| Homo rudolfensis | M1 | 1.45 | Y-5 | Mixed — Large face + early Homo dental diversity. | 1.00 | KNM-ER 1470 cranium association. |
| Homo georgicus | M1 | 1.50 | Y-5 | Mixed — D3444 edentulous adult; antemortem tooth loss. | 1.00 | Tooth sockets reabsorbed; caregiving inference. |
| Homo longi | M1 | 1.35 | Y-5 | Mixed — Harbin cranium: Middle Pleistocene Homo molar dimensions. | 1.00 | Ni et al. 2021 “Dragon Man”. |
| Ardipithecus ramidus | M1 | 1.55 | Y-5 | Mixed — Ar. ramidus: primitive hominin dental pattern (Ardi). | 1.00 | Ardipithecus ramidus (White et al. 2009). |
| Homo habilis | M1 | 1.40 | Y-5 | Scratching — More striations than Paranthropus; thinner enamel caps. | 0.95 | Early Homo (Olduvai association): generalized chewing. |
| Homo naledi | M1 | 1.35 | Y-5 | Scratching — H. naledi: small molars; limited microwear corpus. | 0.95 | DH1 (Dinaledi): gracile postcanine dimensions. |
| Homo luzonensis | M1 | 1.30 | Y-5 | Mixed — H. luzonensis: small teeth; climbing inferred. | 0.95 | Callao Cave teeth (Detroit et al. 2019). |
| Homo sapiens | M1 | 1.25 | Y-5 | Scratching — Jebel Irhoud: modern dental proportions (~315 ka). | 0.92 | Irhoud dental remains (Hublin et al. 2017). |
| Homo sapiens | M1 | 1.22 | Y-5 | Mixed — Omo Kibish early anatomically modern teeth. | 0.91 | Omo 1 (McDougall et al.; White et al.). |
| Homo sapiens | M1 | 1.20 | Y-5 | Mixed — Holocene dietary breadth increases caries risk in some populations. | 0.90 | H. sapiens: relatively low megadontia vs Pleistocene hominins. |
| Homo floresiensis | M1 | 1.25 | Y-5 | Mixed — Island dwarfism: reduced tooth size. | 0.90 | LB1, Liang Bua (Brown et al. 2004). |
| Homo denisova | M1 | – | Y-5 | None Observed — Denisovans primarily known genetically; molars morphologically distinct in some traits. | – | Denisova 4 molar (Krause et al. 2010). |
| Sahelanthropus tchadensis | M1 | – | Y-5 | None Observed — Sahelanthropus: limited sample; enamel thickness CT studies. | – | TM 266-01-060-1 (“Toumaï”) (Brunet et al. 2002). |
| Homo sapiens idaltu | M1 | – | – | – | – | Modern human dental morphology with slight size reduction relative to archaic Homo |
| Homo sp. Nesher Ramla | M2 | – | – | – | – | Large molars with archaic proportions; mandibular dentition robust |
| Australopithecus prometheus | C | – | – | – | – | Large canines relative to A. africanus; more ape-like dental proportions |
| Australopithecus prometheus | M1 | – | – | – | – | Molar morphology intermediate between A. anamensis and A. africanus |
| Homo cepranensis | M2 | – | – | – | – | Dental morphology poorly known; calvaria lacks associated dentition |
| Homo tsaichangensis | P4 | – | – | – | – | Exceptionally large premolars (crown area ~210 mm2); megadont relative to Asian H. erectus |
| Homo tsaichangensis | M1 | – | – | – | – | Large robust molars with thick enamel (crown area ~195 mm2) |
Comparative Anatomy
| Species | EQ | Intermembral Index | Locomotion | Foramen Magnum | Grip | Thorax | Robusticity |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Homo sapiens | 6.20 | 72.0 | Striding Biped | Anterior | Modern | Barrel Shaped | Gracile |
| Homo sapiens idaltu | 5.30 | – | Striding Biped | Anterior | – | – | – |
| Homo neanderthalensis | 5.10 | 78.0 | Striding Biped | Anterior | Modern | Barrel Shaped | Robust |
| Homo helmei | 4.80 | – | Striding Biped | Anterior | – | – | – |
| Homo longi | 4.20 | 78.0 | Striding Biped | Anterior | Developed | Barrel Shaped | Robust |
| Homo cepranensis | 4.00 | – | Striding Biped | Anterior | – | – | – |
| Homo antecessor | 3.90 | 80.0 | Striding Biped | Anterior | Developed | Intermediate | Moderate |
| Homo erectus | 3.80 | 82.0 | Striding Biped | Anterior | Developed | Intermediate | Moderate |
| Homo ergaster | 3.50 | 84.0 | Striding Biped | Anterior | Developed | Intermediate | Moderate |
| Sahelanthropus tchadensis | 3.40 | 98.0 | Facultative Biped | Intermediate | Absent | Funnel Shaped | Moderate |
| Homo rudolfensis | 3.20 | 86.0 | Obligate Biped | Anterior | Rudimentary | Intermediate | Moderate |
| Homo floresiensis | 3.10 | 88.0 | Obligate Biped | Anterior | Developed | Intermediate | Gracile |
| Australopithecus sediba | 2.85 | 90.0 | Obligate Biped | Anterior | Developed | Intermediate | Gracile |
| Homo denisova | 2.80 | – | Striding Biped | Anterior | Developed | Intermediate | Moderate |
| Homo naledi | 2.75 | 88.0 | Obligate Biped | Anterior | Developed | Intermediate | Gracile |
| Australopithecus africanus | 2.65 | 92.0 | Obligate Biped | Anterior | Rudimentary | Funnel Shaped | Moderate |
| Australopithecus anamensis | 2.55 | 94.0 | Obligate Biped | Anterior | Rudimentary | Funnel Shaped | Moderate |
| Australopithecus afarensis | 2.50 | 95.0 | Obligate Biped | Anterior | Rudimentary | Funnel Shaped | Moderate |
| Australopithecus prometheus | 2.50 | 85.0 | Facultative Biped | Intermediate | – | – | – |
| Ardipithecus ramidus | 2.40 | 96.0 | Facultative Biped | Intermediate | Rudimentary | Funnel Shaped | Moderate |
| Paranthropus robustus | 2.35 | 91.0 | Obligate Biped | Anterior | Rudimentary | Funnel Shaped | Hyper Robust |
| Paranthropus boisei | 2.30 | 90.0 | Obligate Biped | Anterior | Rudimentary | Funnel Shaped | Hyper Robust |
| Paranthropus aethiopicus | 2.20 | 93.0 | Obligate Biped | Anterior | Rudimentary | Funnel Shaped | Hyper Robust |
| Homo tsaichangensis | – | – | Striding Biped | – | – | – | – |
EQ vs. intermembral index
Encephalization quotient (y) plotted against the intermembral index (x) for species with both values recorded.