Homo neanderthalensis "Neanderthal"

Mousterian

Middle Paleolithic prepared-core technology primarily associated with Neanderthals. Levallois technique produces predetermined flake shapes. Includes points, scrapers, and notched tools.

Chatelperronian

A transitional Upper Paleolithic tradition found in France and Spain, attributed to late Neanderthals. Includes curved-backed knives and some bone tools and ornaments, possibly reflecting Neanderthal acculturation from contact with H. sapiens.

Widespread evidence of habitual fire use for cooking by Neanderthals

Neanderthal hearths in southwest France.

Well-preserved hearths with layered ash deposits

Late Neanderthal contexts with fire-maintained occupations.

Bruniquel Cave structures

Neanderthal-constructed ring structures made from approximately 400 broken stalagmites arranged in two rings deep inside a cave. Evidence of fire use on the structures.

Evidence: Two rings of broken stalagmites with fire traces, 336m from cave entrance

Lazaret Cave

A possible internal tent-like structure within a larger cave, with evidence of hide walls supported against the cave wall.

Evidence: Post-holes along cave wall, concentrated occupation debris within defined area

Roc de Marsal

Neanderthal occupation with fire.

Evidence: Hearth features

Mezmaiskaya Cave

Neanderthal infant burial and occupation.

Evidence: Stratified MP layers

Kebara Cave

Neanderthal hearths and well-preserved occupation.

Evidence: Layered hearths; hyoid burial

Abri du Marais

MP/UP transition occupations (illustrative).

Evidence: Sheltered overhang

Shanidar 1 injury survival Confirmed

Shanidar 1 Neanderthal survived a crushing blow to the left eye (blinding that eye), a withered right arm (likely amputated), and a severe leg injury. Survival required extended care.

Evidence: Healed fractures and deformities on multiple body regions; individual lived to old age

La Chapelle-aux-Saints care Confirmed

The "Old Man" of La Chapelle-aux-Saints suffered severe osteoarthritis and tooth loss but survived to old age, implying group support.

Evidence: Severe degenerative disease; survived to estimated 40+ years (old for Neanderthals)

Neanderthal deliberate burials Confirmed

Multiple Neanderthal sites show evidence of deliberate burial including flexed body positions, grave goods, and possible flower offerings.

Evidence: Flexed positions in pit-like features; La Ferrassie, Shanidar, Kebara, Teshik-Tash

Neanderthal pyrotechnology Confirmed

Habitual fire in many sites.

Evidence: Hearths across MP

Levallois prepared-core provisioning Probable

Prepared cores transported across landscapes (Neanderthal sites).

Evidence: Core preparation and flake predetermination

Neanderthal shell ornaments Confirmed

Perforated and pigment-stained marine shells used by Neanderthals as personal ornaments, predating contact with H. sapiens.

La Ferrassie burials Confirmed

Multiple Neanderthal burials at La Ferrassie.

Possible Neanderthal cave art Disputed

U-Th dated cave paintings in Spanish caves predating arrival of H. sapiens in Europe (~65 KYA).

Neanderthal manganese processing Probable

Use of black pigments in some MP sites.

Mousterian abstract marks Disputed

Engraved objects from some MP sites (debated).

Neanderthal-constructed ring structures made from broken stalagmites deep inside a cave.

Middle Palaeolithic assemblages in Arabia.

Perforated and pigment-stained marine shells used as personal ornaments by Neanderthals.

Shanidar 1 survived a crushing blow to the left eye, a withered right arm, and a leg fracture. Survival of these injuries required extended care from others.

Several Neanderthal skeletons at Shanidar appear to have been deliberately buried, with some associated pollen suggesting possible flower offerings (debated).

Neanderthal kin group genetics from dental remains.

Neanderthal remains yielding aDNA for genome sequencing.

Châtelperronian ornaments and bone tools (association debated).

Levallois points and MP hunting toolkit.

Healed fracture — Shanidar 1 Evidence of care

Affected: Right humerus/clavicle region

Healed crushing fracture with atrophy-related changes; right arm likely impaired.

Care inference: Long-term survival implies provisioning/protection by group.

Survival: Many years post-injury

Arthritis — Shanidar 1 Evidence of care

Affected: Lower limb joints

Degenerative joint disease; reduced mobility in later life.

Care inference: Survival with limited mobility suggests within-group support.

Survival: Years

Traumatic brain injury — Shanidar 1 Evidence of care

Affected: Left orbit/face

Blunt trauma to left side of face; healed with vision loss inferred.

Care inference: Survival after severe head trauma.

Survival: Long-term survival

Arthritis — La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 Evidence of care

Affected: Spine/hip

Severe DJD; osteoarthritis widespread.

Care inference: Old age survival with severe pathology implies social buffering.

Survival: Years

Degenerative — La Ferrassie 1 Evidence of care

Affected: Skeleton

Widespread degenerative changes; advanced age for Neanderthal.

Care inference: Burial context; survival to old age.

Survival: Years

Unhealed fracture — Shanidar 4

Affected: Rib

Rib lesions interpreted by some as trauma (debated).

Survival: Perimortem vs postmortem debated