Paleoclimate & Environment

Understanding the landscapes, climates, and ecological settings hominins evolved in — from proxy records to geochronology.

Paleoenvironmental reconstructions

Reconstructions of past environments combine multiple independent lines of evidence: pollen and plant macrofossils, faunal community composition, stable isotope ratios from teeth and sediments, and sedimentology (facies, lake levels, aeolian deposits). No single proxy tells the whole story; convergence across proxies strengthens interpretation.

Paleoenvironments map

Sites with coordinates and inferred habitat types from integrated proxy data.

Tropical forest
Woodland
Savanna
Grassland
Desert
Montane
Coastal
Riverine
Cave / rockshelter
Mixed / mosaic

Environment timeline

Records ordered by age (calendar years BP), bars span age_old_bp to age_young_bp, colored by habitat type.

Isotope analysis

Stable isotope measurements from hominin and comparative taxa; δ13C often reflects diet and canopy cover.

Species Site Isotope system Δ value Sample material Interpretation Date (MYA)
Australopithecus afarensis Hadar δC13 -10.5000 enamel Eastern African Pliocene hominins: heterogeneous C3/C4 mix by locale/taxon. 3.200
Australopithecus africanus Sterkfontein δC13 -6.5000 enamel Sterkfontein Au. africanus: mixed C3/C4 browsing/grazing mosaic. 2.800
Australopithecus africanus Sterkfontein δC13 -8.2000 enamel Lower end of Au. africanus δ13C distribution (South African sites). 2.500
Australopithecus africanus Sterkfontein δO18 -4.2000 enamel Bioapatite carbonate oxygen (reporting conventions vary; illustrative site-level value). 2.500
Paranthropus boisei — δC13 -2.0000 enamel Species mean near C4 endmember (East African basins). 2.000
Australopithecus sediba Sterkfontein δC13 -9.0000 enamel Malapa: C3-biased signal in some individuals (environmental/diet heterogeneity). 2.000
Homo rudolfensis Koobi Fora δC13 -8.8000 enamel KNM-ER 1470 early Homo: δ13C within early Homo “C3-heavy” spread. 1.900
Paranthropus robustus Swartkrans δC13 -5.0000 enamel Swartkrans P. robustus: elevated C4 resources vs pure C3 feeders. 1.800
Paranthropus boisei Olduvai Gorge δC13 -1.2000 enamel P. boisei: among most 13C-enriched hominin enamel measured (C4-dominated). 1.800
Paranthropus boisei Olduvai Gorge δO18 -3.8000 enamel Olduvai paleolake hydrology influences δ18O in enamel carbonate. 1.800
Homo georgicus Dmanisi δC13 -11.5000 enamel Dmanisi earliest Eurasian hominin ecosystem (Caucasus). 1.800
Homo habilis Koobi Fora δC13 -8.0000 enamel Early Homo Koobi Fora: more negative δ13C than contemporary Paranthropus. 1.600
Homo ergaster Koobi Fora δC13 -8.5000 enamel H. ergaster/early Homo: predominantly C3 ecosystems with mixed signatures. 1.600
Paranthropus robustus Swartkrans δC13 -7.1000 enamel Spread across individuals/seasons; not a single dietary niche. 1.500
Paranthropus robustus Swartkrans Sr 87 86 0.7085 enamel Local Sr baseline vs possible non-local individuals (mobility studies). 1.500
Homo erectus Wonderwerk Cave δC13 -9.5000 enamel Wonderwerk Cave: southern African savanna-woodland mix. 1.000
Homo antecessor Gesher Benot Ya'aqov δC13 -12.0000 bone apatite GBY Acheulean occupation: Levantine ecosystem isotopic context. 0.790
Homo erectus Zhoukoudian δC13 -18.0000 enamel Zhoukoudian: C3-dominated local biomass signal in enamel apatite studies. 0.500
Homo heidelbergensis Atapuerca δC13 -11.0000 bone collagen Sima de los Huesos: Middle Pleistocene western European ecosystem. 0.430
Homo neanderthalensis Qesem Cave δN15 10.2000 bone collagen Qesem Cave: late Lower Palaeolithic meat-dominated protein signal (site studies). 0.400
Homo erectus Olorgesailie δC13 -11.0000 enamel Olorgesailie Acheulean landscape: open grassland expansion in some intervals. 0.320
Homo sapiens Jebel Irhoud δC13 -13.0000 enamel Jebel Irhoud: North African late Middle Pleistocene ecosystems. 0.315
Homo naledi Rising Star Cave δC13 -10.0000 enamel Rising Star: illustrative mixed C3/C4 context for southern Africa (local ecology). 0.300
Homo neanderthalensis Schoningen δN15 10.8000 bone collagen European Middle Palaeolithic carnivory signal (site-specific). 0.300
Homo rhodesiensis Sterkfontein δC13 -9.2000 bone collagen Kabwe/Broken Hill comparative Middle Pleistocene signal (material debated). 0.300
Homo sapiens Omo Kibish δC13 -15.0000 enamel Omo Kibish: riverine/lacustrine resource δ13C heterogeneity. 0.195
Homo sapiens Pinnacle Point δC13 -16.0000 enamel Pinnacle Point MSA coastal-inland mix (illustrative). 0.164
Homo sapiens Klasies River Caves δC13 -17.0000 bone collagen Klasies River MSA: C3-dominated protein resources (terrestrial/coastal mix). 0.100
Homo sapiens Klasies River Caves δN15 11.0000 bone collagen MSA humans: high δ15N consistent with marine+terrestrial protein at coast. 0.100
Homo sapiens Blombos Cave δC13 -12.5000 bone apatite Blombos coastal diet: marine influence shifts δ13C (material-dependent). 0.077
Homo floresiensis Liang Bua δC13 -14.0000 bone collagen Flores: island resource δ13C (faunal/hominin comparative frameworks). 0.060
Homo neanderthalensis — δN15 10.5000 bone collagen Neanderthals: high δ15N consistent with high trophic level meat protein. 0.050
Homo neanderthalensis — δN15 9.1000 bone collagen Lower δ15N end of Neanderthal range (ecology/age effects). 0.050
Homo denisova Denisova Cave δC13 -14.0000 bone collagen Denisova Cave ecological baseline via fauna comparators (hominin direct values rare). 0.050
Homo neanderthalensis Shanidar Cave δN15 11.2000 bone collagen Shanidar: elevated δ15N in some individuals (freshwater caveat in some regions). 0.045
Homo sapiens Hohle Fels δC13 -21.0000 bone collagen Upper Palaeolithic Europe: strong C3 terrestrial signal (illustrative). 0.040

δ13C vs. age (MYA)

Scatter of carbon isotope values through time; one color per species (δ13C rows only).

Dating methods

Chronometric and relative ages tied to sites and specimens.

Site Specimen Method Date (MYA) Uncertainty Dated material Notes
Sterkfontein Member 2 StW 573 cosmogenic nuclide 3.6700 +0.16 MYA / −0.16 MYA Quartz pebbles from cave infill surrounding skeleton
Laetoli — Ar Ar 3.6600 +0.03 MYA / −0.03 MYA Laetolil Beds tephra Footprint surface bracketing ~3.66 Ma.
Hadar — Ar Ar 3.2000 +0.02 MYA / −0.02 MYA Tuffs at Hadar (Kada Hadar Member) Lucy horizon age cluster ~3.18–3.2 Ma (recalibrated over decades).
Sterkfontein — cosmogenic nuclide 2.8000 +0.3 MYA / −0.3 MYA Member 4 breccia (surface exposure models) Sterkfontein Member 4 age debates; multiple methods.
Middle Awash Taung 1 U Pb 2.8000 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Flowstone (Taung) Taung Child age debates; U-Pb flowstone models.
Sterkfontein Stw 573 U Pb 2.6700 +0.15 MYA / −0.15 MYA Flowstone (Little Foot) StW 573 flowstone bracketing (published ranges).
West Turkana — Ar Ar 2.5000 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Tuffs West Turkana Black Skull / Nachukui Formation ages.
Kromdraai — biostratigraphy 2.0000 +0.2 MYA / −0.2 MYA Faunal assemblage Kromdraai relative dating via biozones (illustrative).
Lomekwi — U Pb 1.9770 +0.003 MYA / −0.003 MYA Flowstone Malapa Au. sediba U-Pb flowstone ages ~1.977 Ma (Dirks et al.).
Olduvai Gorge — Ar Ar 1.8000 +0.02 MYA / −0.02 MYA Tuff I Bed I (crystal separates) Classic Ar/Ar chronology for Olduvai Bed I hominins/tools.
Swartkrans — ESR 1.8000 +0.2 MYA / −0.2 MYA Tooth enamel (Swartkrans) Swartkrans Member chronologies.
Gona — paleomagnetism 1.8000 +0.1 MYA / −0.1 MYA Section (Drimolen) South African cave breccia magnetostratigraphy (site-dependent).
Border Cave — Ar Ar 1.8000 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Trinil section Java Homo erectus classic age brackets.
Olduvai Gorge OH 5 K Ar 1.7900 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Basalt below OH 5 OH 5 approximate stratigraphic age (literature range).
Dmanisi — paleomagnetism 1.7800 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Section through Dmanisi Magnetostratigraphic alignment to global polarity timescale.
Dmanisi D3444 Ar Ar 1.7700 +0.02 MYA / −0.02 MYA Basalt beneath hominin layers Dmanisi hominins ~1.77–1.85 Ma (stratigraphic summaries).
Callao Cave — Ar Ar 1.6600 +0.03 MYA / −0.03 MYA Sangiran tuffs Sangiran H. erectus chronology.
Koobi Fora KNM-WT 15000 Ar Ar 1.5600 +0.02 MYA / −0.02 MYA KBS Tuff (context) Turkana Boy ~1.56 Ma (Turkana radioisotope framework).
Atapuerca — Ar Ar 1.2000 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Atapuerca section tephras Gran Dolina TD6 context (regional chronologies).
Wonderwerk Cave — OSL 1.0700 +0.1 MYA / −0.1 MYA Cave sediments (Wonderwerk) Early fire evidence layers (site publications).
Gesher Benot Ya'aqov — Ar Ar 0.7900 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Basalt chronology (Levant) GBY ~780 ka occupation (classic range).
Herto — Ar Ar 0.6000 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Bodo volcanic context Bodo cranium Middle Pleistocene East Africa.
Atapuerca Cranium 5 U series 0.4300 +0.02 MYA / −0.02 MYA Speleothems / flowstone (Sima) Sima de los Huesos minimum ages (U-series frameworks).
Zhoukoudian Zhoukoudian III U series 0.4000 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Zhoukoudian speleothems / stratigraphy Locality 1 chronology (complex).
Terra Amata — ESR 0.4000 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Tooth enamel Petralona cave chronologies (debated).
Qesem Cave — ESR 0.4000 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Tooth enamel Qesem Cave ages ~400 ka (range in literature).
Ceprano Ceprano 1 K Ar 0.4000 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Volcanic sediment associated with calvaria
Rising Star Cave — ESR 0.3350 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA Tooth enamel (H. naledi) Dirks et al. 2017: H. naledi ages 236–335 ka.
Olorgesailie — Ar Ar 0.3200 +0.03 MYA / −0.03 MYA Tephra correlations Olorgesailie Acheulean chronology (southern Kenya).
Jebel Irhoud Jebel Irhoud 1 U series 0.3150 +0.03 MYA / −0.03 MYA Flowstone Irhoud Jebel Irhoud H. sapiens ~315 ka (multi-method).
Schoningen — U series 0.3000 +0.03 MYA / −0.03 MYA Speleothem / peat (context) Schöningen spears ~300 ka (site summaries).
Lazaret Cave Kabwe 1 U series 0.3000 +0.05 MYA / −0.05 MYA U-series on bone (context) Kabwe direct dating attempts (contested).
Penghu Channel Penghu 1 biostratigraphy 0.3000 +0.15 MYA / −0.15 MYA Associated dredged fauna (Stegodon, Rhinoceros)
Bouri Formation — ESR 0.2600 +0.04 MYA / −0.04 MYA Enamel (Florisbad) Late Middle Stone Age hominin contexts (illustrative).
Florisbad Florisbad cranium ESR 0.2590 +0.035 MYA / −0.035 MYA Bovid tooth enamel from associated deposit
Rising Star Cave DH1 U series 0.2360 +0.03 MYA / −0.03 MYA Flowstone ages (Dinaledi) Young end of naledi age distribution.
Omo Kibish Omo 1 Ar Ar 0.1960 +0.005 MYA / −0.005 MYA KHS tephra Omo Kibish Omo I KHS ~196 ka (radioisotope frameworks).
Pinnacle Point — OSL 0.1640 +0.02 MYA / −0.02 MYA Coastal sediments Pinnacle Point 5–164 ka MSA occupations.
Herto BOU-VP-16/1 Ar Ar 0.1600 +0.002 MYA / −0.002 MYA Dacitic tuff underlying hominin-bearing horizon
Nesher Ramla NR-1 U series 0.1300 +0.01 MYA / −0.01 MYA Bovid tooth enamel from same stratum
Klasies River Caves — OSL 0.1150 +0.015 MYA / −0.015 MYA Coastal sediments Klasies River MSA ages (site publications).
Blombos Cave — OSL 0.0770 +0.007 MYA / −0.007 MYA Sediments (MSA) Blombos Still Bay / MSA chronologies.
Liang Bua LB1 Ar Ar 0.0600 +0.01 MYA / −0.01 MYA Jaramillo ash near Liang Bua LB1 bracketing (Flores chronology).
Shanidar Cave Shanidar 1 radiocarbon C14 0.0500 +0.005 MYA / −0.005 MYA Charcoal (Neanderthal layers) Shanidar MP/UP chronology (site-specific calibrations).
Denisova Cave — radiocarbon C14 0.0500 +0.01 MYA / −0.01 MYA Charcoal / bone (molecular age) Denisova Cave stratigraphic chronology (multiple labs).
Hohle Fels — radiocarbon C14 0.0400 +0.005 MYA / −0.005 MYA Charcoal (Aurignacian contexts) Hohle Fels Upper Palaeolithic ages.