Diet & Food Sources

How hominins obtained, processed, and consumed food across millions of years of evolution.

Food Sources

FoodTypeProcurementProcessingEarliest EvidenceNutritional Significance
Fruits and berries
Wild fruits from forest and woodland environments.		 Fruit Gathering Raw 10.0 MYA Source of sugars, vitamins, and water; easy to procure
Underground storage organs (tubers)
Starchy underground plant organs including tubers, corms, and bulbs. A staple food source for many hominin species.		 Tuber Digging Raw 3.5 MYA High in calories and carbohydrates; available year-round; requires digging tools
C4 grasses and sedges
Open-country C4 plants including grasses and sedges.		 Seed Gathering Raw 3.5 MYA High fiber; seasonal availability; key for isotopic C4 signals
Grass seeds
Seeds of wild grasses and sedges. Important C4 food source.		 Seed Gathering Pounded 3.0 MYA Carbohydrate source; storable; seasonal
Seeds and nuts (hard-shelled)
Hard-object fallback foods.		 Nut Gathering Cracked 3.0 MYA Fats and protein
Bone marrow
Calorie-rich fat extracted from long bones of large mammals using percussion tools.		 Marrow Scavenging Cracked 2.5 MYA Extremely calorie-dense; rich in fatty acids critical for brain development
Scavenged meat
Meat obtained from carnivore kills or natural deaths.		 Meat scavenged Scavenging Raw 2.5 MYA Important protein and fat source before active hunting developed
Underground termites/ants (insect protein)
Social insect protein from mounds.		 Insect Digging Raw 2.0 MYA High protein; seasonal peaks
Freshwater fish
River/lake fish in rift settings.		 Fish Fishing Cooked fire 1.9 MYA Protein + lipids
Tubers and roots (C3)
C3 underground storage organs.		 Tuber Digging Cooked fire 1.5 MYA Carbohydrates for large-brained hominins
Cooked plant underground storage organs
Heat-processed tubers.		 Cooked Digging Cooked fire 1.0 MYA Increased digestibility
Large game meat
Meat from actively hunted large mammals including ungulates, horses, and elephants.		 Meat hunted Hunting Cooked fire 500 KYA High in protein and fat; essential for supporting larger brain sizes
Megalafauna marrow (elephant)
Large-bodied fat reservoirs.		 Marrow Scavenging Raw 400 KYA High fat for energy budgets
Shellfish
Marine and freshwater mollusks, crabs, and other invertebrates. Important coastal resource.		 Shellfish Gathering Raw 164 KYA Rich in omega-3 fatty acids and DHA; supports brain development
Marine mammals
Seals and small cetaceans at coastal sites.		 Meat hunted Hunting Cooked fire 120 KYA Fat + protein

Fire Use & Cooking

Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa Confirmed

Homo erectus — 1.0 MYA — Controlled

Microstratigraphic evidence of burned bone and ash in Acheulean layers

Cueva Negra del Estrecho del Río Quípar, Spain Disputed

Homo erectus — 800 KYA — Hearth

Heated flint/bones interpreted as fire evidence (debated).

Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel Confirmed

Homo erectus — 790 KYA — Hearth

Spatial clusters of burned flint, seeds, and wood indicating repeated hearth use

Zhoukoudian, China Disputed

Homo erectus — 500 KYA — Controlled

Burned bones and possible hearths in cave deposits (debated)

Arago, France Possible

Homo heidelbergensis — 450 KYA — Controlled

Heated flint/bone fragments in Middle Pleistocene deposits.

Torralba and Ambrona, Spain Possible

Homo erectus — 400 KYA — Cooking

Acheulean sites with heated bones (interpretations debated).

Bilzingsleben, Germany Probable

Homo erectus — 370 KYA — Hearth

Open-air site with burned bone and heated features (interpretations vary).

Schoningen, Germany Probable

Homo heidelbergensis — 300 KYA — Hearth

Possible hearths associated with wooden spears

Border Cave, South Africa Confirmed

Homo sapiens — 200 KYA — Hearth

MSA hearths and charred vegetation.

Pinnacle Point 13B, South Africa Confirmed

Homo sapiens — 164 KYA — Cooking

Pyrotechnology and heat treatment of silcrete (MSA).

Klasies River Main site, South Africa Probable

Homo sapiens — 120 KYA — Cooking

MSA fire-associated shellfish processing.

Multiple European sites Confirmed

Homo neanderthalensis — 100 KYA — Cooking

Widespread evidence of habitual fire use for cooking by Neanderthals

Multiple global sites Confirmed

Homo sapiens — 70 KYA — Cooking

Habitual fire use and cooking universal in H. sapiens

Roc de Marsal, France Confirmed

Homo neanderthalensis — 70 KYA — Hearth

Neanderthal hearths in southwest France.

Kebara Cave, Israel Confirmed

Homo neanderthalensis — 60 KYA — Hearth

Well-preserved hearths with layered ash deposits

Peştera cu Oase, Romania Probable

Homo neanderthalensis — 40 KYA — Hearth

Late Neanderthal contexts with fire-maintained occupations.

Kostenki sites, Russia Confirmed

Homo sapiens — 40 KYA — Hearth

Upper Palaeolithic structured hearths.

Ohalo II, Israel Confirmed

Homo sapiens — 23 KYA — Cooking

Brush huts with hearths; charred plant food.